INTRODUCTION TO EXTRACTION
Percolator
INTRODUCTION TO EXTRACTION
DEFINATION:
Extraction
means withdrawal of desired constituents from crude drug through the use of
selective solvents in which desired constituents are soluble.
OR
The
process in which animal or plant tissues are treated with specific solvents
whereby medically active constituents are dissolved out, most of inactive or
inert components and cell tissues remain undissolved.
MENSTRUM:
The solvent used
for extraction purpose is called menstrum.
MARC:
The residue left
after extracting the desired constituents is called marc.
REASONS
FOR EXTRACTION
·
Potency
is more readily controlled.
·
Deterioration
by enzyme action is diminished.
·
Preparations
of drug are more easily formulated, more stable, more palatable and more
elegant.
·
Tableting
of crude material may not be possible.
·
Injection
of crude material may be undesirable or dangerous.
·
Smaller
bulk facilitates storage and transport.
Solvents used for extraction are:
·
Water
·
Alcohol
i.e. Ethanol
·
Hydro alcoholic
mixtures
·
Glycerin
·
Dilute
HCl
·
Acetic
acid
·
Organic
solvents i.e. Ether
The products so obtained from
plants by extraction are relatively impure liquids, semi solids or powders
intended only for oral or external use.
These include different preparations
like infusions, decoction, fluid extracts or tinctures. Such preparations have
been called ‘galenicals’.
The product thus obtained may
be used as a medicinal agent in the form of tinctures and fluid extracts, it
may be further processed to be incorporated in any dosage form such as tablets
or capsules.
METHODS
OF EXTRACTION OF MEDICINAL PLANTS
INFUSION:
An infusion is a dilute
solution of readily soluble constituents of crude drugs.
Fresh infusions are prepared
by macerating the crude drug for short period of time with either cold or
boiling water.
DECOCTION:
It
is also called heating or boiling process.
“A
process in which water soluble or stable constituents of hard and woody crude
drugs are extracted out by heating and boiling the water.”
For example: Boiling of
leaves in water to make tea is a decoction process.
DIGESTION:
The modified form of
maceration in which the extraction of drug is carried out by applying gentle
heat.
This method is applicable
only to those drugs where moderately elevated temperature is not objectionable.
MACERATION:
The term maceration means ‘to soak’ or ‘to
wet’.
“It
is a process in which properly comminuted drug is permitted to soak in the
menstrum until the cellular is softened and penetrated by menstrum and soluble
constituents are dissolved.”
The whole or coarsely
powdered crude drug is placed in a stoppered container with the solvent and
allowed to stand at room temperature for a period of at least 3 days with
frequent agitation until the soluble matter has dissolved. The mixture then is
strained, the marc is pressed and the combined liquids are clarified by
filtration or decantation after standing.
PERCOLATION:
It
means to drain through a porous material or filter.
“The
process by which comminuted drug is extracted from its soluble constituents by
slow passage of a suitable solvent through a column of drug.”
Percolator:
The process of percolation is carried out
in a vessel called percolator.
Percolate:
The collective extractives are called
percolate.
Example:
·
Tincture
of Belladonna
·
Strong
tincture of Cardamom
·
Preparation
of Coffee
This is the procedure used
most frequently to extract active ingredients in the preparation of tinctures
and fluid extracts.
The solid ingredients are
moistened with an appropriate amount of specified menstrum and allowed to stand
for approximately 4 hours in a well closed container after which the mass is
packed and the top of percolator is closed. Additional menstrum is added to
form a shallow layer above the mass and the mixture is allowed to macerate in
closed percolator for 24 hours.
The outlet of percolator,
then is opened and the liquid contained therein is allowed to drip slowly.
Additional menstrum is added
as required, until the percolate measures about 3 quarters of required volume
of finished product. The marc is then pressed and the expressed liquid is added
to the percolate. Sufficient menstrum is added to produce the required volume
and the mixed liquid is clarified by filtration or by standing followed by decanting.
Advantage:
The advantage of this method,
compared to previously described methods, is that large amount of drug can be
extracted with a much smaller quantity of solvent, it is most economical in
terms of time, energy and consequently financial inputs.
If
the therapeutic values lies in the non-polar constituents, a non-polar solvent
may be used.
ALKALOIDS
DEFINITION
“Chemically
alkaloids are defined as organic nitrogenous substances of plant origin that
are ionic in nature.”
These
alkaloids are insoluble in water but their salts are freely soluble in water.
The
free alkaloids are soluble in ether, chloroform or any other non-polar
solvents.
EXAMPLES
·
Atropine
·
Morphine
·
Cocaine
·
Caffeine
·
Nicotine
·
Emetine
·
Vinblastine
·
Theophylline
·
Scopolamine
TYPES OF ALKALOIDS
·
Pyridine-piperidine Alkaloids
e.g.Lobelia,Tobacco Nicotine
·
Purine
Alkaloids
e.gTea,coffee(Caffiene,Theophylline,Theobromine)
·
Tropane Alkaloids
e.g.Hyoscyamus,Stramonium,Belladona ( Hyoscyamine,scopolamine,Belladonine)
·
Quinoline Alkaloids
e.g.Cinchona bark(Quinine, Cinchonine,Cinchonidine)
·
Iso-quinoline Alkaloids
e.g.
Opium(morphine,codiene),Ipecac(Emetine)
·
Indole Alkaloids
e.g.Nuxvomica(Strychnine,Brucine) ,Rauwolfia(Reserpine),Catharanthus(Vinblastine,Vincristine)
l
Steroidal Alkaloids
e.gVeratrum(Veratridine)
l
Imidazole alkaloids
e.gPilocarpus(pilocarpine)
l Alkaloidal
amines e.g Ephedra (ephedrine,psuedoephedrine)
EXTRACTION OF CAFFEINE (PURINE ALKALOID)
FROM TEA
Caffeine act as CNS stimulant. It is
naturally occurring alkaloid found in certain bark of plants and in fruits,
e.g. Coffeaarabica, camellia sinensisetc
BOTANICAL NAME: Camellia sinensis
FAMILY: Theaceae
CHEMICAL CONSTITUENTS: Caffeine ,Theophylline,Tannins
PART USED: Leaves
USES: CNS
stimulant
REQUIREMENTS
APPARATUS
Beakers, burner, tripod stand, conical
flask, funnel, filter paper, separating funnel, weighing balance and water
bath.
CHEMICALS
·
4 tea bags
·
Distilled
water
·
Dichloromethane
·
Sodium
carbonate (Na2CO3)
EXTRACTION
THEORY:
Solvent extraction is a process of purification involving the use
of two solvents or solutions that are immiscible with one another. It is based on the
differential solubility of compounds in water and an immiscible organic solvent
(typically diethyl ether, chloroform, dichloromethane, ethyl acetate). This
allows the desired organic product to be separated from inorganic or very other
polar by-products. This is the basis of an older industrial method for
"decaffeinating" coffee.
PROCEDURE
PART 1: DISSOLUTION OF CAFFIENE IN WATER
·
Weigh
15 g of tea bags and place them in a beaker. Record actual weight of tea bags (W1).
·
Add
300 ml of Distilled water to the beaker and 5g of Na2CO3.
·
Boil
water containing tea bags for 10-15 minutes while stirring continuously.
·
After
the boiling period is over, remove the beaker from heat and allow it to cool
for 15 minutes.
·
After
solution has cooled, squeeze the tea bags to remove all the liquid.
·
Dispose
of the bags.
·
Filter
the solution with regular filter paper to remove any solid particle left.
PART 2: TRANSFER OF CAFFIENE FROM
WATER TO DICHLOROMETHANE
·
Transfer
the above filtrate to a separating funnel and add 20 ml DCM in it and shake
gently.
·
Allow
DCM to settle to bottom. Carefully drain the DCM layer in flask. Repeat it 3
times with 20 ml DCM.
·
Dispose
of the aqueous layer.
·
Filter
the solution.
PART 3: CRYSTALLIZATION OF
CAFFIENE
·
Place
the DCM solution containing caffeine over boiling water.
·
Evaporate
the solution down to about 20 ml and remove from heat.
·
Weigh
a clean watch glass and weigh it (W2).
·
Place
the watch glass on the flame and let it cool.
·
Now weigh the watch glass (W3).
·
What
is the weight of Caffeine? (W3–W2=W4)
·
What
is your percentage yield of Caffeine? (W4/W1 x 100)
CALCULATION:
% yield =
Weight of caffeine/Weight of sample × 100
MICROSCOPIC EXAMINATION:
- Caffeine + drops of mercuric chloride HgCl2 -----------Ã examine under microscope------Ã needle-shape Crystals.
Result Sheet
EXTRACTION
OF STRYCHNINE & BRUCINE (INDOLE ALKALOIDS) FROM NUXVOMICA
VERNACULAR NAME: Kutchla
BOTANICAL NAME: Strychnosnuxvomica
FAMILY: Loganiaceae
CHEMICAL CONSTITUENTS: Strychnine(1.25%), Brucine(1.5%)
PART USED: Dried
seeds
USES: Strychnine: In
physiologic research,CNSstimulant,Vermicide,Respiratorystimulant,Circulatory
stimulant in case of shock
Brucine: Alcohol denaturant
APPARATUS:
*Petri
dishes * Beakers *Funnel
* Separating Funnel *Test
tubes *Tripod stand
*Stirrer *Filter paper
CHEMICALS:
Aluminium hydroxide, Chloroform, Sulphuric
Acid, Potassium dichromate
PROCEDURE:
l
10g of
powdered drug is taken in a conical flask.Add water in it.Filter the
solution.Filtrate is taken in a test tube .
l
Add
0.5ml of Al(OH)3 and 2-3 ml of chloroform & shake well.
l
Transfer
the solution to separating funnel and leave it for sometime till the 2 layers
is formed.
l
Upper
layer is aqueous layer and lower layer is organic layer.
l
Perform
the tests on organic layer:
EXPERIMENT |
OBSERVATION |
INFERENCE |
1.Test for Brucine To
a solution in a test tube, add few ml of HNO3 |
Crimson yellow color appear |
Brucine Alkaloid present |
2.Test for Strychnine To
a solution in a test tube add few crystals of K2Cr2O7
& few ml of H2SO4 are added. |
Brown color appear |
Strychnine Alkaloid present |
EXTRACTION OF
NICOTINE (PYRIDINE-PIPERIDINE ALKALOIDS) FROM
TOBACCO
LEAVES
Chemistry:
Nicotine is hygroscopic oily
liquid that is miscible with water in its base form. As a nitrogen base,
nitrogen nicotine from salts with a acid that are usually solid and water
soluble. Nicotine easily penetrates the skin.
Toxicology:
The LD50 of nicotine is 50mg/kg for rats
and 3mg/kg for mice.40-60mg/kg can be lethal dosage for adult human being. This
makes it an extremely deadly poison. It is more toxic than other alkaloids,
such as cocaine, which have lethal dose of 1000mg.
Principle:
The extraction depends on isolation of base by
dissolving the cigarettes in NaOH. Then extract nicotine from the filtrate by
ether. After evaporation of ether you will get nicotine oil.
The factories of cigarettes remove large
quantities of nicotine from cigarette leaves because of high toxicity. This is
why the produced oil is very little. To get nicotine crystals, saturated
solution of picric acid is added to form nicotine di picrate yellow crystals.
Aims of Experiment:
In this experiment you will
extract nicotine from cigarette with ether and precipitate as nicotine
di-picrate salt.
Materials:
1.
Tobacco leaves.
2. Ether.
3. NaOH solution (5%)
4. Beaker 250ml, separating
funnel.
5. Conical flask
6. Saturated picric acid solution
in methanol.
Procedure:
1. Weigh 10g of cigarette/tobacco leaves in a beaker.
2.
Add 100ml of NaOH solution and stir very well for 15mins.
3.
Filter it and press cigarette very well by using other beaker.
4.
Transfer cigarette again to beakers.
5
.Add 30ml of distilled water, stir and filter it again
6. Collect the filtrate together.
7.
Transfer the filtrate to separating funnel and extract by 25ml of ether.
8.
Repeat extraction three times.
9
.Gather the filtrate into conical flask.
10. Dry by using one teaspoon anhydrous
potassium carbonate. Filter it.
11.Evaporate ether on water bath. (Avoid extra
heat because nicotine is hydrolyzed by extreme heating).
12- After evaporation of ether add 4ml methanol to
dissolve the
resulted oil.
13- Add 10ml saturated picric acid solution.
14- Cool in an ice bath to precipitate the
nicotine di picrate crystals.
15.Filter; allow drying and weighing the product.
RESULT:
%
yield = weight of oil extracted from
crude drug /weight of crude drug used × 100
MICROSCOPIC
EXAMINATION:
Nicotine
+ Mercuric Chloride HgCl2 = Examine under microscope = Flowery-shape
Crystals
ISOLATION
OF AN ALKALOID :ISOLATION OF PIPERINE
FROM
BLACK PEPPER
Introduction:
Piperine is an alkaloid found
naturally in plants belonging to the Piperaceaefamily, such as Piper nigrumL, commonly known as black
pepper, and Piper longumL, commonly known as long pepper.
Piperine is a solid substance essentially insoluble in water. It
is a weak base that is tasteless at first, but leaves a burning aftertaste.
In this experiment we will extract the alkaloid components that
give black pepper its physiological properties including carminative (relief of
intestinal gas), diuretic (increases urine output) as well as the well-known “taste bud” effects.
As
we know black pepper contains about ;
·-3% of volatile oils
(terpenes),
·-10% of the alkaloids
piperine.
·-13% starch.
·the remaining is cellulose
& water.
·To get the pure
piperine, all other components must be removed, so the starch can be dissolved
and volatile oils must soapnification so it can be water soluble.
Among these, piperine is the major component while piperanine and
pipercide are only present in minute amounts.
Materials:
• KOH
solved in ethanol (2M).
• Ethanol
(95%) 300 ml.
• HCL (6
M).
• RAD
condenser
• Buchner
Funnel.
Method:
-Weight 50gm of black piper. (Note; the net result for the piperine
extracted should be 5gm. (since it contain10%
of piperine).
- Add 300ml ethanol 95% to the 50gm piper and hold the condenser
above the bottle.
- Heat the mixture gradually until it boiled and keep it on heater
for 3 hours then cool it.
- Filtrate the mixture in funnel.
-Distillate
the filtrate in distillation device to remove the extra ethanol until the
volume inside reached 25 ml.
-Then
do soapnificationby adding 25 ml of
KOH solved in ethanol (2 M) to this solvent and then mix it and hold the
condenser above the bottle then boil the mixture for exactly 5min.
-After this add 35-40 ml water until the solvent become
muddy then put it into a
beaker
then in Ice bath and scratch the wall with a glass rode.
-
Leave it to the next day.
-Filtrate
the solution in Funnel.
-
Piperine will expected to be 3gm but if you find it 2.7 gm which is
considered
to be very close to perfect accuracy.
Warning;
- If boiling period after soapnificationstill
more than 5min, the weak bond between N & C will be broken by the entrance
of KoH and so it is hydrolyzed to piperidine + piperic acid which is
undesirable.
GLYCOSIDES
DEFINITION
“Glycosides
are compounds which upon hydrolysis give rise to one or more sugars (glycones)
and a compound which is not a sugar (aglycone or genin).”
They
are colorless, crystalline compounds.
Anthracene/Anthraquinone
glycosides are red or orange colored compounds.
They
are soluble in water and alcohol, but insoluble in other organic solvents like
chloroform, petroleum ether.
EXAMPLES
·
Saponin glycosides e.g. Senegal
·
Cardiac glycosides e.g. Digitalis, Strophanthus
·
Anthraquinone glycosides e.g.Senna, Aloe Vera
·
Cyanophore glycosides e.g. Bitter Almond
·
Isothiocyanate
glycosides e.g. Mustard plant
·
Flavanol glycosides e.g.Rutin
·
Alcohol glycosides e.g. Salix purpurea
·
Aldehyde glycosides e.g. Vanilla planifolia
EXTRACTION AND IDENTIFICATION OF ANTHRAQUINONE GLYCOSIDES
FROM SENNA LEAVES
BOTANICAL
NAME: Cassia acutifolia, Cassia angustifolia
FAMILY: Leguminoseae
PART USED: Dried leaves
CHEMICAL CONSTITUENTS
Senna contains
·
Anthraquinone glycosides i.e. Sennoside ‘A’ and
Sennoside ‘B’
·
Aloe-emodinglycoside,mucilage,resins.
APPARATUS
Beakers, Test tubes,
Funnel, Tripod Stand, Burner, Pipette, Stirrer, Spatula, Filter Paper, Test
tube holder, Weighing Balance
CHEMICALS
*Conc. H2SO4 * NaCl *Ethanol *Copper Sulphate
*Ammonia Solution * Bromine Water * Conc. HNO3
PROCEDURE
·
Take about 0.6g Of Senna leaves.
·
Prepare 10% conc. H2SO4 and boil the
leaves in H2SO4 for 15 minutes.
·
Filter the solution and allow it to cool.
·
Perform the confirmatory tests on this filtrate.
EXPERIMENT |
OBSERVATION |
INFERENCE |
1.Borntragers Test: Took 2ml of extract in a test tube, added 2ml of Ammonia
solution to it. |
Reddish brown color appears. |
AnthraquinoneGlyscosideare present. |
2. Bromine water Test: Took 2ml of extract in a test tube, added 1-2 drops
of BROMINE WATER. |
Pale yellow color appears |
AnthraquinoneGlyscosideare present. |
3.Nitric acid Test: Take 2ml of extract, added 1-2ml of nitric acid |
Pale brown color appears |
AnthraquinoneGlyscosideare present. |
4.KlungsIsobarbaloin Test: Take 2ml extract, added 1-2 drops CuSo4 +1gm
NaCl+10ml 90% alcohol |
Green color appears. |
AnthraquinoneGlyscosideare present. |
USES
:1. Senna
is used as purgative and cathartic. Also used as stimulant laxative.
2.The
drug is used in acute constipation & in all cases in which defecation with
soft stool is required.
EXTRACTION AND IDENTIFICATION OF ANTHRAQUINONE GLYCOSIDES
FROM ALOE VERA
BOTANICAL
NAME: Aloe barbadenis
FAMILY: Liliaceae
PART USED: Leaves
CHEMICAL CONSTITUENTS
Aloe contains:
·
Aloin
·
Resin
·
Aloe-emodin
·
Volatile oils
·
Barbaloin
APPARATUS
Beakers, Test tubes,
Funnel, Tripod Stand, Burner,Pipette, Stirrer, Spatula, Filter Paper, Test tube
holder, Weighing Balance
CHEMICALS
* Conc. HNO3 *NaNo2(sodium nitrite) *Acetic acid *CuSo4 solution *NaCl * Bromine
water 90% Alcohol
PROCEDURE
·
Boil 1gm of drug with 100ml of water
·
Add little silica gel and filter it.
·
Perform the confirmatory tests on this filtrate.
EXPERIMENT |
OBSERVATION |
INFERENCE |
1.Borntragers Test: Aloe (0.1g) drug is boiled with dil.HCl (5ml) for
5min. The solution is cooled,filtered and the filtrate is sahken with
benzene.The benzene layer is separated, ammonia solution is added to this . |
Pink
color appears. |
AnthraquinoneGlyscosideare present. |
2. Bromine water Test: Took 2ml of extract in a test tube, added 1-2 drops
of BROMINE WATER. |
Pale yellow color appears. |
AnthraquinoneGlyscosideare present. |
3.Nitric acid Test: Take 5ml of extract, added 1-2ml of nitric acid |
Pale brownish yellow color appears. |
AnthraquinoneGlyscosideare present. |
5.Klungssobarbaloin Test: Take 20ml extract, added 1-2 drops CuSo4 +1gm
NaCl+10ml 90% alcohol |
Purple color appears. |
AnthraquinoneGlyscoside are
present.(Isobarbaloin) |
6.Nitrous Acid Test: To aq. Solution of Aloe small amount of sodium
nitrite and few ml of acetic acid are added |
Pink color appears. |
AnthraquinoneGlyscoside are present |
7.Schontetens Test: To a solution(5ml) borax(0.2g) is added and is
heated to dissolve completely. Few drops of liquid are poured in a test tube
filled with water. |
A Green fluorescence appears. |
AnthraquinoneGlyscoside are present |
USES
:
1. Aloeis used as purgative and given in constipation.
2. Ointment
of aloe-gel is used to cure burns caused by heat,sun or radiation and skin
irritations.
3. It is
also used to cure many skin disease and tonic for stomach.
TANNINS
DEFINITION
“Tannins are complex organic non.nitrogenous substances of
polyhydroxy benzoic acid”.
They are the complex compounds that are capable of
combining either the animal proteins resulting in their precipitation.
·
Soluble in water ,alcohol and
acetone.
·
Insoluble in organic solvents
such as ether and chloroform.
·
They have molecular weight
ranging from 500 to over 3,000(gallic acid esters) and upto
20,000(proanthocyanidins)
TYPES:
Hydrolysable Tannins:- These consist of gallic acid or related polyhydric compounds
esterified with glucose because such esters are readily hydrolysed to yield the
phenolic acid and sugar so they are referred as hydrolysable tannins. E.g clove
Condensed Tannins :-These tannins results from the condensation of two or more
flavon-3-ols, such as catechin.When treated with hydrolyted agents, these
tannins tends to b polymerited yielding insoluble red colour products known as
phalobaphenes. E.g cinnamon, tea.
Pseudo Tannins:-They have properties of both hydrolysable and condensed
tannins.Extraction of gallicacid,catecholchlorogenic acid is obtained
.E.grhubarb,coffee.
Extraction and Identification Of
Tannins From Cinnamon
BOTANICAL ORIGIN:-Cinnamomumloureirii
FAMILY:-Lauraceae
PART USED:-Dried bark
CONSTITUENTS:-Cinnomic aldehyde, eugenol, mannitol.
REQUIREMENTS:
Drug extract, test tubes, separating
funnel, beakers, pipette, 5% Ferric chloride solution, bromine water.
PROCEDURE:
Take about 5g of drug and than add 100ml of
water and boil it for about 10-15min.Filter the solution and cool it and
perform identification test.
USES:
·
Tannins
are an important ingredient in the process of tanning leather.
·
Wood
adhesive.
·
Antiparasitic
effects.
·
Antibacterial,
antiviral.
·
Precipitate
proteins.
·
Astringent
IDENTIFICATION
TESTS FOR CINNAMON:
EXPERIMENT |
OBSERVATION |
INFERENCE |
1. Took 2ml of extract in a test tube, added 2ml of
distilled water and than added 1-2 drops of FERRIC CHLORIDE SOLUTION. |
Light Greenish color was appeared. |
Identification of condensed tannins. |
2. Took 2ml of extract in a test tube, added 1-2 drops
of BROMINE WATER. |
Dark orange color was appeared. |
Identification of condensed tannins. |
CARBOHYDRATES
Carbohydrates
are heterogeneous organic compounds. Except for polymers, most carbohydrates
have a sweet taste, hence they are called sugars. They are also called
saccharides due to their white crystalline appearance.
Carbohydrates maybe defined as “poly-hydroxy
aldehydes” or “poly-hydroxy ketones”.
Classification
Monosaccharide:
They
are the simplest Carbohydrates; if they are further broken, doesn’t possess the
characteristics carbohydrates.Monosaccharides are colorless, crystalline substances which have a sweet
taste and are soluble in water.Examples: Glucose
(aldo-hexose), Fructose (keto-hexose).
Disaccharides:
They are formed
by the condensation of two monosaccharide molecules. The monosaccharides are
connected by aglycosidic linkage. Some common disaccharides are:Maltos,
Lactose,Sucrose
Polysaccharides:
They are formed
by the condensation of a large number of monosaccharide molecules and have a
high molecular weight, hence are slightly soluble in cold water. They form
a colloidal solution when heated with water. E.g starch
EXTRACTION&
IDENTIFICATION OF STARCH FROM POTATO
BOTANICAL ORIGIN: Solanumtuberosum
FAMILY: Solanaceae
THEORY: Starch is a plant carbohydrate. It is
a mixture of two structurally different polysaccharides which are:
Amylase: Linear molecules composed of 250-300
units of glucose uniformly linked by 1,4α glycosides linkage.
Amylopectin: Consist of 1000 or more molecules of
glucose connects with 1,4 linkage and a number of 1,6 linkage are also present about 4%.
MATERIAL:
Pestle and mortar, Beaker, Potato
PROCEDURE:
Take 10g of peeled potato, wash them and cut
into small pieces. Now crush them with water in the form of paste. Now add 200
ml of water in it and allow it to stand for 20 minutes. Now filter the water to
remain the cell debris. The filtrate contain the starch .Allow it to stand for
2 hours. The starch will settle down and is separated, dried and identified
through tests.
EXPERIMENT |
OBSERVATION |
INFERENCE |
Molishs tests: Take two test tubes and label them S for
sample and B for blank. Take 3ml of distilled water in test tube
B and 3ml of given solution in test tube S. Add 2 to 3 drops of Molisch’s
reagent in both test tubes. Mix thoroughly and incline the test tubes
and run 3ml of concentrated sulphuric acid along the wall of test tubes. . |
Appearance
of reddish violet colored ring at the junctions of two liquid |
Indicates
the presence of carbohydrate (mono,di-,or polysaccharides) |
Iodine
test: Take
3ml of carbohydrate solution in a test tube. Acidify it with one drop of concentrated
HCl. Now add one small drop of iodine
solution in this test tube and mix it. |
Blue color appears |
Presence of Starch is confirmed |
Benedicts test: Take 5 ml of benedict reagent in a test
tube and add 8 drops of given solution. Mix and boil over a flame or in
a boiling water bath for 2 minute and cool the solution. |
Appearance
of green, yellow, orange or red precipitate No
change in color |
Reducing sugars present Non-Reducing sugars present |
USES:
As dusting powder.
As base for enemas.
As antidote for iodine poisoning.
As binder and disintegrating agent in
tablets.
As nutrient.
Chromatography
Chromatography is
usually introduced as a technique for separating and/or identifying the
components in a mixture. The basic principle is that components in a mixture
have different tendencies to adsorb onto a surface or dissolve in a solvent. It
is a powerful method in industry, where it is used on a large scale to separate
and purify the intermediates and products in various syntheses.
Basic principle
All
chromatographic methods require one static part (the stationary phase) and one
moving part (the mobile phase). The techniques rely on one of the following
phenomena: adsorption; partition; ion exchange; or molecular exclusion.
Partition
In partition chromatography the stationary
phase is a non-volatile liquid which is held as a thin layer (or film) on the
surface of an inert solid. The mixture to be separated is carried by a gas or a
liquid as the mobile phase. The solutes distribute themselves between the
moving and the stationary phases, with the more soluble component in the mobile
phase reaching the end of the chromatography column first . Paper
chromatography is an example of partition chromatography.
PAPER
CHROMATOGRAPHY
Paper
chromatography is most effective for the identification of unknown substances
when known samples are run on the same paper chromatograph with unknowns
This is probably
the first, and the simplest, type of chromatography that people meet. A drop of
a solution of a mixture of dyes or inks is placed on a piece of chromatography
paper and allowed to dry. The mixture separates as the solvent front advances
past the mixture. Filter paper and blotting paper are frequently substituted
for chromatography paper if precision is not required. Separation is most
efficient if the atmosphere is saturated in the solvent vapour
Some simple
materials that can be separated by using this method are inks from fountain and
fibre-tipped pens, food colourings and dyes. The components can be regenerated
by dissolving them out of the cut up paper.
The efficiency of the separation can be
optimised by trying different solvents, and this remains the way that the best
solvents for industrial separations are discovered (some experience and
knowledge of different solvent systems is advantageous).
Paper
chromatography works by the partition of solutes between water in the paper
fibres (stationary phase) and the solvent (mobile phase).
Common solvents
that are used include pentane, propanone and ethanol. Mixtures of solvents are
also used, including aqueous solutions, and solvent systems with a range of
polarities can be made. A mixture useful for separating the dyes on Smarties is
a 3:1:1 mixture (by volume) of butan-1-ol:ethanol:0.880 ammonia solution.
As each solute
distributes itself (equilibrates) between the stationary and the mobile phase,
the distance a solute moves is always the same fraction of the distance moved
by the solvent.
This fraction is
variously called the retardation factor or the retention ratio, and is given
the symbol R or Rf:
(Rf )Retention ratio = distance moved by
solute
distance
moved by solvent
So as long as the
correct solvent and type of chromatography paper are used, a component can be
identified from its retention ratio
It is possible
that two solutes have the same Rf values using one solvent, but different
values using another solvent (e.g this occurs with some amino acids). This
means that if a multi component system is not efficiently separated by one
solvent the chromatogram can be dried, turned through 90C, and run again using
a second solvent
SEPARATION OF COMPONENTS FROM A MIXTURE OF RED AND
BLUE INKS
Apparatus:
Lab Procedure
- Take a Whatman filter paper strip and
using a pencil draw a horizontal line 4cm from one end of the paper. Then
draw another line lengthwise (verticallly) from the centre of the paper.
Name the point at which the two lines intersect as P.
- Using a fine capillary tube, put a drop
of the mixture of red and blue inks at the point P. Let it dry in air.
- Put another drop on the same spot and dry
again, so that the spot is rich in the mixture.
- Pour equal amounts of isopropyl alcohol
and distilled water into a chromatographic chamber and mix it well using a
glass rod. This is used as the solvent.
- Suspend the filter paper vertically in
the chromatographic chamber containing the solvent in such a way that the
pencil line remains about 2cm above the solvent level.
- Close the jar with its lid and keep it
undisturbed.
- Notice the rising solvent along with the
red and blue inks. After the solvent has risen about 15 cm you will notice
two different spots of blue and red colors on the filter paper.
- Take the filter paper out of the jar and
using a pencil mark the distance that the solvent has risen on the paper.
This is called the solvent front.
- Dry the filter paper and put pencil marks
at the centre of the red and blue ink spots.
- Measure the distance of the two spots from
the original line and the distance of the solvent from the original line.
- Calculate the Rf values of the red and
blue inks using the formula,
·
Rf=distance travelled by the component /distance travelled by solvent
WORK SHEET
Observation
Observations
can be recorded as shown.
SI
No. |
Components |
Distance
travelled by the component from the original line (cm) |
Distance
travelled by the solvent from the original line (cm) |
Rf
value |
1. |
Red |
|
|
|
2. |
Blue |
|
|
|
Inference
- Rf value of red ink =
……………
- Rf value of blue ink =
…………..
SEPARATION
OF PIGMENTS FROM THE EXTRACT OF SPINACH LEAVES
Materials Required
Lab Procedure
- Take a Whatman filter paper strip and
using a pencil draw a horizontal line 4cm from one end of the paper. Then
draw another line lengthwise (verticallly) from the centre of the paper.
Name the point at which the two lines intersect as P.
- Using a fine capillary tube, put a drop
of the extract of spinach leaves at the point P. Let it dry in air.
- Put another drop on the same spot and dry
again, so that the spot is rich in the leaf extract.
- Pour equal amounts of isopropyl alcohol
and distilled water into a chromatographic chamber and mix it well using a
glass rod. This is used as the solvent.
- Suspend the filter paper vertically in
the chromatographic chamber containing the solvent in such a way that the
pencil line remains about 2cm above the solvent level.
- Close the jar with its lid and keep it
undisturbed.
- Notice the rising solvent along with the
coloured components of the leaf extract.
- After the solvent has risen to about 15
cm you will notice two different spots of coloured components on the
filter paper.
- Take the filter paper out of the jar and
using a pencil mark the distance that the solvent has risen on the paper.
This is called the solvent front.
- Dry the filter paper and put pencil marks
at the centre of each spot.
- Measure the distance of each spot from
the original line and the distance of the solvent front from the original
line.
- Calculate the Rf values of different
components of leaf extract by using the formula,
Precautions
- Use good
quality pencil for drawing the reference line so that the mark does not
dissolve in the solvent in which the chromatography is carried out.
- Always use a
fine capillary tube.
- Keep the jar
undisturbed and covered during the experiment.
- The spot
should be small and rich in mixture.
- Allow the
spot to dry before putting the strip in the jar.
- Keep the
strip erect. Do not let it curl.
- Do not allow
the spot to dip in the solvent.
WORK SHEET
Observation
Observations
can be recorded as shown
|
|
|
|
|
SI.No |
Component |
Distance
travelled by the component from the original line (cm) |
Distance
travelled by the solvent from the original line (cm) |
Rf
value |
1. |
Orange
(Carotene) |
|
|
|
2. |
Yellow
(Xanthophyll) |
|
|
|
3. |
Light
green (Chlorophyll a) |
|
|
|
4. |
Dark
green (Xanthophyll) |
|
|
|
Inference
- Rf value of orange
(Carotene) = ……………
- Rf value of Yellow
(Xanthophyll) = …………..
- Rf value of Light green
(Chlorophyll a) = …………..
- Rf value of Dark green
(Xhlorophyll b) = …………..
PREPARATION OF TLC PLATES
Thin layer chromatography
is a chromatography technique used to separate non-volatile mixtures.
Thin layer chromatography
is performed on a sheet of glass,plastic,oraluminium foil, which is coated with
a thin layer of adsorbent material, usually silica gel, aluminium oxide or
cellulose. This layer of adsorbent is known as the stationary phase.
Principle
:
TLC is based on the
principle of separation. The separation depends on the relative affinity of
compounds towards stationary and mobile phase. The compounds under the
influence of mobile phase( driven by capillary action) travel over the surface
of stationary phase. During this movement the compounds with higher affinity to
stationary phase travel slowly while the others travel faster. Thus separation
of components in the mixture is achieved.
Thin layer chromatography
(TLC) is a widely employed laboratory technique and is similar to paper
chromatography. However ,instead of using a stationary phase of paper, it
involves a stationary phase of a thin layer of adsorbent like silica gel,
alumina, or cellulose on a flat, inert substrate. Compared to paper, it has the
advantage of faster runs, better separations, and the choice between different
adsorbent. For even better resolution and to allow for quantification,
high-performance TLC can be used.
Preparation
of TLC plates:
l
Weigh
approx. 2gm of silica gel.
l
Mix the
adsorbent (Silica gel) with a small amount of inert binder calcium
sulphate(gypsum) and water.
l
This
mixture is spread as thick slurry on glass slide or thick aluminium foil.
l
The
resultant plate is dried and activated by heating in an oven for thirty minutes
at 110ºC.
l
The
thickness of absorbent layer is typically around 0.5-2mm for preparative TLC.
THIN LAYER CHROMATOGRAPHY
DETECTION OF CAFFEINE IN VARIOUS SAMPLES
Materials
Needed:
TLC
equipment:
1
5-cm x 8-cm TLC plate, 2 capillary micropipettes, TLC tank and lid, ruler, UV
lamp
Extraction
Equipment:
Spatula,
2 small test tubes, Pasteur pipet and bulb
Chemicals:
Caffeine,
ethanol, dichloromethane, TLC solvent (5% acetic acid in ethyl acetate)
Three
of the following samples for analysis: Analgesic pill, instant coffee, tea
Purpose
In
this experiment, thin-layer chromatography (TLC), a standard technique for the
qualitative analysis of mixtures, will be introduced. First, a sample of
caffeine will be authenticated by measuring its melting point.
The
authentic caffeine will then be used as a standard for the TLC analysis one of
the following items: a diet soda, tealeaves, instant coffee, cocoa powder, or
an analgesic pill.
The
caffeine present in these substances must first be separated from dissimilar
materials in the substance using a process called extraction. Extraction simply
involves treating the substance with an organic solvent that will dissolve out
the caffeine and other soluble organic materials but leave insoluble matter
(such as cellulose in leaves and inorganic binders in a pill) behind.
Laboratory Procedures
Melting Point Procedure.Use the capillary
melting point technique to obtain the mp range of pure caffeine(238 C).
Carefully
note your observations on what the sample looks like as it heats up and then
melts.
Each
group should extract and analyze one instant beverage sample, one analgesic
tablet, and one liquid pop sample.
Extraction Procedures:
Solid samples – instant beverages
and analgesic pills. Use 500 mg of the sample. Make sure to record the actual
mass used. If a solid sample is not a fine powder to begin with, then you will
need to grind it to a powder, preferably by using a mortar and pestle. Put each
powder into a small, labeled test tube. Add 2.0 mL ethanol to each test tube
and shake to mix thoroughly. Heat the tubes gently on a hot water bath for 2-3
minutes and then allow the contents to cool and settle. Not all of the powder
will dissolve; the inorganic buffering agent (if present) and binder are insoluble
in ethanol. However, any organic compounds present will dissolve. Remove the
ethanol solution from undissolved solids using a pipet. Use this solution to
spot the TLC plate.
Liquid samples.Measure 4 mL of the
liquid into a large test tube. Wear gloves during the rest of this step. Add 5
mL of CH2Cl2 to the tube. Cap the tube with a tight fitting rubber sleeve
stopper or cork and shake gently at first, frequently removing the stopper to
allow venting of any pressure build up. Shake well then allow the layers to
separate. Caffeine is much more soluble in CH2Cl2 than in H2O so any caffeine
present goes into the CH2Cl2 layer. Use a Pasteur pipet to transfer most of the
lower CH2Cl2 layer to a small test tube. Add a few CaCl2 pellets to this tube
and let stand for 5-10 minutes – the solution should
clear up as the CaCl2 absorbs any remaining water (“dries
the solution”). Use this solution to spot the TLC
plate.
TLC Procedures
l Put approximately 25
mg of caffeine in a small, labeled test tube. Add 4.0 mL of ethanol mix, and
heat gently to dissolve the caffeine.
l Obtain a TLC plate.
The plate should be handled using forceps so as to avoid contamination. A light
pencil line should be drawn using a straight edge about 1 cm from one end of
the plate.
l The instructor will
demonstrate the spotting technique. Use a capillary micropipette to make a
small spot of the pure caffeine solution (made in step 3) on the plate. Place
the spot 1 cm from the left edge along the pencil line you drew.
l Also spot the TLC
plate with each of the solutions prepared in steps 1 and 2. Make these three
spots at 1-cm intervals to the right of the caffeine spot. In order to avoid
confusion make sure to label the spots lightly in pencil bellow the line.
l Develop the TLC
plate by placing it in a beaker that has been filled with developing solvent
(5% acetic acid in ethyl acetate) to a level of less than 1 cmhigh (the spot on the TLC plate should be above the level of the solvent). Cover
the beaker with aluminum foil immediately after the TLC plate is immersed.
Allow the solvent to migrate up the TLC plate until it is about one centimeter
from the top. Do not allow the solvent
line to reach the top of the plate.
l Remove the TLC plate
and mark the level to which the solvent rose with a pencil. Allow the solvent
to evaporate off of the plate in the hood and then visualize the plate under UV
light. Outline all spots with a pencil.
l Measure the distance
the solvent moved as well as the distances of all spots. Carefully sketch the
TLC plate in the space provided on the report sheet.
Post-Lab Calculations
Calculate
the Rf of all of the spots.
Rf of compound =
Distance moved by spot / Distance moved by solvent
Z y x
Ddd
Pic.
Calculating the Rf of Spots in TLC (a)
before development (b) after development
PRE-LABORATORY
QUESTIONS
TLC AND MELTING POINT DETERMINATION: DETECTION
OF CAFFEINE IN VARIOUS SAMPLES IN-LAB OBSERVATIONS/DATA
Name ____________ Section
______________ Date___________
Team Name/Partners ____________________
1. Give the structure of
caffeine in the space below. Explain why it is considered an amine.
Pure Caffeine
General Observations_________________________________________________
Melting point range _______________Literature mp ____________
Reference________________________________
Samples analyzed data and observations
Sample #1(instant beverage) ________
Sample #2 (liquid soda)
___________
Sample #3 (analgesic pill) ___________
Amounts taken : Caffeine ______ Sample 1 ______ Sample 2 _______Sample
3________
Observations on solutions used to spot TLC plate:
Caffeine_________________________________
Sample #1 _______________________________
Sample#2________________________________
Sample#3________________________________
Observations on TLC
______________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________
TLC Results:
SKETCH OF DEVELOPED TLC PLATE
Distances moved:
Solvent __________________
Caffeine _________________
Spots in sample#1 ____________________
Spots in sample#2 ____________________
Spots in sample#3 ____________________
DETECTION OF CAFFEINE IN VARIOUS
SAMPLES
REPORT SHEET
I. Melting Point of Caffeine
Mp _______________ Literature Mp _________________
II. TLC Results Table
Solution |
Rf value (s) |
Approximate Relative Darkness and
Size of Spot (compared to caffeine standard) |
Caffeine |
|
|
Sample 1: ______________________ |
|
|
Sample 2 : ______________________ |
|
|
Sample 3: ______________________ |
|
|
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